1. TreyC, DavidsonCS. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. In: PopperH, SchaffnerF(eds). Progress in Liver Diseases. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1970: 282.

2. RittDJ, WhelanG, WernerDJ, et al.Acute hepatic necrosis with stupor or coma. An analysis of thirty‐one patients. Medicine1969;48:151. CrossRef

3. TujiosS, LeeWM. Acute liver failure. In: DooleyJ, BurroughsA, HeathcoteJ, et al. (eds). Sherlock's Diseases of the Liver and Biliary System, 12th edn. London: Wiley; 2011: 70. CrossRef

4. BernalW, HyyrylainenA, GeraA, et al.Lessons from look‐back in acute liver failure? A single centre experience of 3300 patients. J Hepatol2013;59:74. CrossRef

5. BenhamouJ‐P. Fulminant and subfulminant liver failure: definition and causes. In: WilliamsR, HughesRD(eds). Acute Liver Failure. Improved Understanding and Better Therapy. London: SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals; 1991: 6.

6. BernalW, AuzingerG, DhawanA, et al.Acute liver failure. Lancet2010;376:190. CrossRef

7. PolsonJ, LeeWM. AASLD Position Paper: acute liver failure. Hepatology2005;41:1179. CrossRef

8. LeeWM, StravitzRT, LarsonAM. Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Position Paper on acute liver failure. Hepatology2012;55:965. CrossRef

9. RolandoN, Philpott‐HowardJ, WilliamsR. Bacterial and fungal infection in acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis1996;16:389. CrossRef

10. VaqueroJ, PolsonJ, ChungC, et al.Infection and the progression of hepatic encephalopathy in acute liver failure. Gastroenterology2003;125:755. CrossRef

11. OstapowiczGA, FontanaRJ, SchiodtFV, et al.Results of a prospective study of acute liver failure at 17 tertiary care centers in the United States. Ann Intern Med2002;137:945. CrossRef

12. AcharyaSK, DasarathyS, KumerTL, et al.Fulminant hepatitis in a tropical population: clinical course, cause, and early predictors of outcome. Hepatology1996;23:1448. CrossRef

13. ZimmermanHJ, MaddreyWC. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) hepatotoxicity with regular intake of alcohol: analysis of instances of therapeutic misadventure. Hepatology1995;22:767. CrossRef

14. SchiødtFV, AtillasoyE, ShakilO, et al.Etiology and outcome for 295 patients with acute liver failure in the United States. Liver Transpl Surg1999;5:29. CrossRef

15. ShakilAO, KramerD, MazariegosGV, et al.Acute liver failure: clinical features, outcome analysis, and applicability of prognostic criteria. Liver Transpl2000;6:163.

16. NourjahP, AhmadSR, KarwoskiC, et al.Estimates of acetaminophen (paracetamol)‐associated overdoses in the United States. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf2006;15:398. CrossRef

17. SchiodtFV, RochlingFA, CaseyDL, et al.Acetaminophen toxicity in an urban county hospital. N Engl J Med1997;337:1112. CrossRef

18. RumackBH. Acetaminophen misconceptions. Hepatology2004;40:10. CrossRef

19. WhitcombDC, BlockGD. Association of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity with fasting and ethanol use. JAMA1994;272:1845. CrossRef

20. MakinAJ, WilliamsR. Acetaminophen‐induced hepatotoxicity: predisposing factors and treatments. Adv Intern Med1997;42:453.

21. LarsonAM, FontanaRJ, DavernTJ, et al.Acetaminophen‐induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology2005;42:1367. CrossRef

22. BondR, HoM, WoodwardRW. Trends in hepatic injury associated with unintentional overdose of paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without opioid. Drug Saf2012;35:149. CrossRef

23. ShayiqRM, RobertsDW, RothsteinK, et al.Repeat exposure to incremental doses of acetaminophen provides protection against acetaminophen‐induced lethality in mice: an explanation for high acetaminophen dosage in humans without hepatic injury. Hepatology1999;29:451. CrossRef

24. RumackBH, BatemanDN. Acetaminophen and acetylcysteine dose and duration: past, present and future. Clin Toxicol2012;50:91. CrossRef

25. SchiødtFV, BondesenS, TygstrupN, et al.Prediction of hepatic encephalopathy in paracetamol overdose: a prospective and validated study. Scand J Gastroenterol1999;34:723. CrossRef

26. SmilksteinMJ, KnappGL, KuligKW, et al.Efficacy of oral N‐acetylcysteine in the treatment of acetaminophen overdose. Analysis of the national multicenter study (1976 to 1985). N Engl J Med1988;319:1557. CrossRef

27. PolsonJ, WiansFHJr., OrsulakP, et al.False positive acetaminophen concentrations in patients with liver injury. Clin Chim Acta2008;391:24. CrossRef

28. DamstenMC, CommandeurJNM, FidderA, et al.Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry detection of covalent binding of acetaminophen to human serum albumin. Drug Metab Dispos2007;35:1408. CrossRef

29. DavernTJII, JamesLP, HinsonJA, et al.Measurement of serum acetaminophen‐protein adducts in patients with acute liver failure. Gastroenterology2006;130:687. CrossRef

30. JamesLP, AlonsoEM, HynanLS, et al.Detection of acetaminophen‐protein adducts in children with acute liver failure of indeterminate cause. Pediatrics2006;118:676. CrossRef

31. KhandelwalN, JamesLP, SandersC, et al.Unrecognized acetaminophen toxicity as a cause of indeterminate acute liver failure. Hepatology2011;53:567. CrossRef

32. JamesLP, LetzigL, SimpsonPM, et al.Pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen protein adducts in adults with acetaminophen overdose and acute liver failure. Drug Metab Dispos2009;37:1. CrossRef

33. WatkinsPB, KaplowitzN, SlatteryJT, et al.Aminotransferase elevations in healthy adults receiving 4 grams of acetaminophen per day. JAMA2006;296:87. CrossRef

34. ReubenA, KochDG, LeeWM, et al.Drug‐induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology2010;52:2065. CrossRef

35. WheelerC, VogtTM, ArmstrongGL, et al.An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onions. N Engl J Med2005;353:890. CrossRef

36. TaylorRM, DavernTJ, MunozS, et al.Fulminant hepatitis A virus infection in the United States: incidence, prognosis, and outcomes. Hepatology2006;44:1589. CrossRef

37. AjmeraV, XiaG, VaughanG, et al.What factors determine the severity of hepatitis A related acute liver failure?J Viral Hepat2011;18:e167. CrossRef

38. VentoS, GarofanoT, RenziniC, et al.Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med1998;338:286. CrossRef

39. DaoDY, HynanLS, YuanHJ, et al.Two distinct subtypes of hepatitis B virus‐related acute liver failure are separable by quantitative serum IgM anti‐HBc and HBV DNA levels. Hepatology2012;55:676. CrossRef

40. SchiødtFV, DavernTJ, ShakilOA, et al.Viral hepatitis‐related acute liver failure. Am J Gastroenterol2003;98:448. CrossRef

41. WoolfIL, SheikhNE, CullensH, et al.Enhanced HBsAb production in pathogenesis of fulminant viral hepatitis type B. Br Med J1976;2:669. CrossRef

42. MatsuiT, KangJ‐H, NojimaM, et al.Reactivation of hepatitis B in patients with undetectable HBsAg undergoing chemotherapy for malignant lymphoma or multiple myeloma. J Med Virol2013;85:1900. CrossRef

43. OhMJ, LeeHJ. A study of hepatitis B virus reactivation associated with rituximab therapy in real‐world clinical practice: a single‐center experience. Clin Mol Hepatol2013;19:51. CrossRef

44. CampsenJ, ZimmermanM, TrotterJ, et al.Liver transplantation for hepatitis B liver disease and concomitant hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States With hepatitis B immunoglobulin and nucleoside/nucleotide analogues. Liver Transpl2013;19:1020. CrossRef

45. HeneghanMA, YeomanAD, VermaS, et al.Autoimmune hepatitis. Lancet2013;382:1433. CrossRef

46. StravitzRT, LefkowitchJH, FontanaRJ, et al.Autoimmune acute liver failure: proposed clinical and histological criteria. Hepatology2011;53:517. CrossRef

47. MuradSD, PlessierA, Hernandez‐GuerraM, et al.Etiology, management, and outcome of the Budd‐Chiari syndrome. Ann Intern Med2009;151:167. CrossRef

48. NegevDL, NguyenGC, LockeJE, et al.Twenty years of liver transplantation for Budd‐Chiari syndrome: a national registry analysis. Liver Transpl2007;13:1285. CrossRef

49. ShresthaR, DurhamJD, WachsM, et al.Use of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt as a bridge to transplantation in fulminant hepatic failure due to Budd‐Chiari syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol1997;92:2304.

50. RyuRK, DurhamJD, KryslJ, et al.Role of TIPS as a bridge to hepatic transplantation in Budd‐Chiari syndrome. J Vasc Interv Radiol1999;10:799. CrossRef

51. RobertsE, SchilskyML. A practice guideline on Wilson disease. Hepatology2003;37:1475. CrossRef

52. KormanJD, VolenbergI, BalkoJ, et al.Screening for Wilson disease in acute liver failure: a comparison of currently available diagnostic tests. Hepatology2008;48:1167. CrossRef

53. MonteroJL, MuntaneJ, de las HerasS, et al.Acute liver failure caused by diffuse hepatic melanoma infiltration. J Hepatol2002;37:540. CrossRef

54. TaylorRM, TujiosS, JinjuvadiaK, et al.Short and long‐term outcomes in patients with acute liver failure due to ischemic hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci2012;57:777. CrossRef

55. HoffmanBJ, PateMB, MarshWH, et al.Cardiomyopathy unrecognized as a cause of hepatic failure. J Clin Gastroenterol1990;12:306. CrossRef

56. OcknerRS, BruntEM, CohnSM, et al.Fulminant hepatic failure caused by acute fatty liver of pregnancy treated by orthotopic liver transplantation. Hepatology1990;11:59. CrossRef

57. NelsonDB, YostNP, CunninghamFG. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: clinical outcomes and expected duration of recovery. Am J Obstet Gynecol2013;209:456.e1. CrossRef

58. AbildgaardU, HeimdalK. Pathogenesis of the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count (HELLP): a review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol2013;166:117. CrossRef

59. GyangAN, SrivastavaG, AsaadK. Liver capsule rupture in eclampsia: treatment with hepatic artery embolisation. Arch Gynecol Obstet2006;274:377. CrossRef

60. LeeWM, BrownKE, YoungNS, et al.Brief report: no evidence for hepatitis E or parvovirus B19 Infection in patients with acute liver failure. Dig Dis Sci2006;51:1712. CrossRef

61. UmemuraT, TanakaE, OstapowiczG, et al.Investigation of SEN virus infection in patients with cryptogenic acute liver failure, aplastic anemia and acute and chronic non‐A‐E hepatitis. J Inf Dis2003;188:1545. CrossRef

62. LevitskyJ, ThadareddyA, LakemanFD, et al.Detection and diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infection in adults with acute liver failure. Liver Transpl2008;14:1498. CrossRef

63. TeoEK, OstapowiczGA, HussainM, et al.Hepatitis B infection in patients with acute liver failure in the United States. Hepatology2001;33:972. CrossRef

64. RutherfordAE, HynanLS, BorgesCBS, et al.Serum apoptosis markers in acute liver failure: a pilot study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol2007;5:1477. CrossRef

65. RutherfordA, KingLY, HynanLS, et al.Development of an accurate index for predicting outcomes of patients with acute liver failure. Gastroenterology2012;143:1237. CrossRef

66. SchiodtFV, RossaroL, StravitzRT, et al.Gc‐globulin and prognosis in acute liver failure. Liver Transpl2005;11:1223. CrossRef

67. SchiodtFV, OstapowiczGA, MurrayN, et al.Alpha fetoprotein and prognosis in acute liver failure. Liver Transpl2006;12:1776. CrossRef

68. StravitzRT, SanyalAJ, ReischJ, et al.Effects of N‐acetylcysteine on cytokines in non‐acetaminophen acute liver failure: potential mechanism of improvement in transplant‐free survival. Liver Int2013;33:1324. CrossRef

69. MøllerHJ, GrønbaekH, SchiødtFV, et al.Soluble CD 163 from macrophages predicts mortality in acute liver failure. J Hepatol2007;47:671. CrossRef

70. Dominguez FernandezE, LangeK, LangeR, et al.Relevance of two‐stage total hepatectomy and liver transplantation in acute liver failure and severe liver‐trauma. Transpl Int2001;14:184. CrossRef

71. LeeWM, GalbraithRM. The extracellular actin‐scavenger system and actin toxicity. N Engl J Med1992;326:1335. CrossRef

72. ParekhNK, HynanLS, De LemosJ, et al.Elevated troponin I levels in acute liver failure: is myocardial injury an integral part of the acute liver failure?Hepatology2007;45:1489. CrossRef

73. VaqueroJ, PolsonJ, ChungC, et al.Infection and the progression to deep hepatic encephalopathy in early fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology2003;125:755. CrossRef

74. ChungRY, StravitzRT, FontanaRJ, et al.Pathogenesis of liver injury in acute liver failure: meeting summary. Gastroenterology2012;143:e1. CrossRef

75. LeeWM, HynanLS, RossaroL, et al.Intravenous N‐acetylcysteine improves transplant‐free survival in early stage non‐acetaminophen acute liver failure. Gastroenterology2009;137:856. CrossRef

76. LeeWM, StravitzRT, LarsonAM. Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Position Paper on acute liver failure. Hepatology2012;55:965. CrossRef

77. StravitzRT, KramerAH, DavernT, et al.Intensive care of patients with acute liver failure: recommendations of the Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Crit Care Med2007;35:2498. CrossRef

78. RutherfordA, DavernT, HayJE, et al.High body mass index predicts poor outcome in acute liver failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol2006;4:1544. CrossRef

79. LarsenFS, WendonJ. Prevention and management of brain edema in patients with acute liver failure. Liver Transpl2008;14(Suppl 2):S90. CrossRef

80. ClemmesenJO, LarsenFS, KondrupJ, et al.Cerebral herniation in patients with acute liver failure is correlated with arterial ammonia concentration. Hepatology1999;29:648. CrossRef

81. JalanR, WrightG, DaviesNA, et al.L‐Ornithine phenylacetate (OP): a novel treatment for hyperammonemia and hepatic encephalopathy. Med Hypotheses2007;69:1064. CrossRef

82. VaqueroJ, FontanaRJ, LarsonAM, et al.Complications and use of intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with acute liver failure and severe encephalopathy. Liver Transpl2005;11:1581. CrossRef

83. StravitzRT, LarsenF. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute liver failure. Crit Care Med2009;37(7 Suppl):S258. CrossRef

84. RolandoN, Philpott‐HowardJ, WilliamsR. Bacterial and fungal infection in acute liver failure. Semin Liver Dis1996;16:389. CrossRef

85. KarvellasCJ, CavazosJ, BattenhouseH, et al.; US Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Effects of antimicrobial prophylaxis and blood stream infections in patients with acute liver failure: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol2014;12:1942. CrossRef

86. HarbarthS, HoleckovaK, FroidevauxC, et al.Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin‐6, and interleukin‐8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med2001;164:396. CrossRef

87. StravitzRT, LismanT, LuketicVA, et al.Minimal effects of acute liver injury/acute liver failure on hemostasis as assessed by thrombo‐elastography. J Hepatol2012;56:129. CrossRef

88. StravitzRT. Potential applications of thromboelastography in patients with acute and chronic liver disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol2012;8:513.

89. MazerM, PerroneJ. Acetaminophen‐induced nephrotoxicity: pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. J Med Toxicol2008;4:2. CrossRef

90. ValeJA, ProudfootAT. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning. Lancet1995;346:547. CrossRef

91. HarrisonPM, WendonJA, GimsonAES, et al.Improvement by acetylcysteine of hemodynamics and oxygen transport in fulminant hepatic failure. N Engl J Med1991;324:1852. CrossRef

92. HarrisonP, WendonJ, WilliamsR. Evidence of increased guanylate cyclase activation by acetylcysteine in fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology1996;23:1067. CrossRef

93. SmilksteinMJ, KnappGL, KuligKW, et al.Efficacy of oral Nacetylcysteine in the treatment of acetaminophen overdose. N Engl J Med1988;319:1557. CrossRef

94. KeaysR, HarrisonPM, WendonJA, et al.Intravenous acetylcysteine in paracetamol induced fulminant hepatic failure: a prospective controlled trial. BMJ1991;303:1026. CrossRef

95. HarrisonPM, KeaysR, BrayGP, et al.Improved outcome of paracetamol‐induced fulminant hepatic failure by late administration of acetylcysteine. Lancet1990;335:1572. CrossRef

96. SchneiderJ, LutunP, BoudjemaK, et al.In vivo evidence of enhanced guanylyl cyclase activation during the hyperdynamic circulation of acute liver failure. Hepatology1994;19:38. CrossRef

97. WalshTS, HoptonP, PhilipsBJ, et al.The effect of N acetylcysteine on oxygen transport and uptake in patients with fulminant hepatic failure. Hepatology1998;27:1332. CrossRef

98. StravitzRT, SanyalAJ, ReischJ, et al.Effects of N‐acetylcysteine on cytokines in non‐acetaminophen acute liver failure: potential mechanism of improvement in transplant‐free survival. Liver Int2013;33:1324. CrossRef

99. SinghS, HynanLS, LeeWM, et al.Improvements in hepatic serological biomarkers are associated with clinical benefit of intravenous N‐acetylcysteine in early stage non‐acetaminophen acute liver failure. Dig Dis Sci2013;58:1397. CrossRef

100. LeeWM, SquiresRHJr., NybergSL, et al.Acute liver failure: summary of a workshop. Hepatology2008;47:1401.

101. O'GradyJG, AlexanderGJ, HayllarKM, et al.Early indicators of prognosis in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterology1989;97:439.

102. LeeWM. Determining prognosis in acute liver failure. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol2012;9:192. CrossRef

103. CholongitasE, TheocharidouE, VasianopoulouP, et al.Comparison of SOFA score to King's criteria and MELD score in the prognosis of acetaminophen‐induced acute liver failure. Liver Transpl2012;18:405. CrossRef

104. SchmidtLE, LarsenFS. MELD score as a predictor of liver failure and death in patients with acetaminophen‐induced liver injury. Hepatology2007;45:789. CrossRef

105. DemetriouA, BrownRS, BusuttilRW, et al.Prospective, randomized, multicenter, controlled trial of a bioartificial liver in treating acute liver failure. Ann Surg2004;239:660. CrossRef

106. JalanR, SenS, WilliamsR. Prospects for extracorporeal liver support. Gut2004;53:890. CrossRef

107. LiuJ, KhaergardLL, Asl‐NielsenB, et al.Artificial and bioartificial support systems for liver failure: a Cochrane Hepato‐Biliary Group Protocol. Liver2002;22:433. CrossRef

108. ChariRS, CollinsBH, MageeJC, et al.Brief report: treatment of hepatic failure with ex vivo pig liver perfusion followed by liver transplantation. N Engl J Med1994;331:234. CrossRef

109. HorslenSP, HammelJM, FristoeLW, et al.Extracorporeal liver perfusion using human and pig livers for acute liver failure. Transplantation2000;70:1472. CrossRef